Analysis of Information Technology in Public Sector

Analysis of Information Technology in Public Sector Chapter 1 Introduction Countries and governments in the world try to develop and extend their business and economies throughout built relation and agreements among them for the exchange and transaction for different kind of trades through out what call e-government to facilitate communicating and transmitting the information between these countries, and to achieve these, they need to adopt the information technology as infrastructure for e-government purposes (Traunmiiller and Klaus Lenk, 2002). So, information technology IT, digital and networking considered a crucial requirements for the companies to extend their operation scope in the global. So organizational spending on information technology (IT) and utilize the technology to support different strategic and operational objectives to give the strength for the competitive strategy (support the different aspects of business), (Venkatesh Morris Davis Davis, 2003). Therefore, Information technology can be defined in various ways Like information technology includes hardware, software and telecommunication equipment which is used to capture, process, and store and distribute information ( Global text -information system-Richard T. Watson -2007Â ¬chapter 1). Also information technology refers to office, computing machines, communications equipment, instruments, photocopiers and related equipment, and software and related services (Brynjolfsson, 1991). Even Information Technology (IT) refers to Any equipment, or interconnected system or subsystem of equipment which is used in the automatic acquisition, storage, manipulation, management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange, transmission. (DODD 4630.5, January 11, 2002). when the companies attempt to adopt the technology they face problems about the acceptance of the employees for the technology , some companies still cant predict the success from implementing new technology among the employees, some fail in adopting particular technology and some face resistance for accepting or adopting the technology, another companies didnt get the benefits that they expect from accepting or adopting the technology ,therefore, the companies turn to study the technology users conceptual about technology and the factors that could affect the acceptance for the technology (Alsohybe, 2007). Since information technology is supporting our economy throughout the reductions in the cost of obtaining, processing, and transmitting information are changing the way we do business so no company can escape its effects. General Managers know the importance of information technology and how it effect in the work. As more and more they spend their investment capital and their time in information technology and its effects, an executive have a growing awareness that the technology can no longer be the exclusive area of IT departments or IS departments, Executives recognize the need to become directly involved in the management of the new technology since they see their competitors use information for competitive advantage, These In the face of rapid change, however, they dont know how (S Rivard, L Raymond, D Verreault, 2006). In order to help managers respond to the challenges of the information developing and how will advances in information technology affect competition and the sources of competitive advantage and what are the opportunities for investing in information technology. For that managers must first understand the information technology (Yen Subramanian chino, 1997). So this study is going to examine the factors that influence information technology acceptance in the public sector in the republic of YEMEN to enhance the accepting, adopting and the usage of information technology among the workers in the public sector. Beside facilitate the information transaction between the managements and between the government utilities with spotlight in the role of information technology strategies in these utilities to support the accepting, adoption for the technology. Even this study is going to examine the support of the government to adopt the information technology as government infrastructure toward E-government. Republic of Yemens Background The Republic of Yemen is an Arab country located in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bounded on the north by Saudi Arabia and by the Arab Sea. Oman lies in the west of the Republic of Yemen and the Red Sea lies in the west of the Republic of Yemen. The total area of the Republic of Yemen is about 555,000 square Kilometer, and the population of the Republic of Yemen is 18 million. The official language of the country is Arabic and Islam is the official religion of the country. The ethnic groups in the Republic of Yemen are predominantly Arab, but also Afro-Arab, South Asians, Europeans. The Yemeni Rial (YR) is the official currency unit, but visitors can exchange most of the international currencies in exchange establishments or banks all over towns. Currently, the Republic of Yemen is enjoying a stable political, economic, and social system based on respect and openness with the rest of the world. This stability provides an opportunity for the country to improve its economy and service provision to its citizen and move along with the rest of the world. The Republic of Yemen has three national independence days: September 26, 1962 when the king of North the Republic of Yemen, at that time, was overthrown and making the country a republic instead of a kingdom, November 30, 1967 when South the Republic of Yemen, at that time, had become independent from United Kingdom. The Unification Day on May 22, 1990, when the Republic of Yemen was established by the merger of South the Republic of Yemen and North the Republic of Yemen. The legal system of the Republic of Yemen is based on Islamic law, Turkish law, English common law, and local tribal customary law. The Republic of Yemen is one of the poorest countries in the Arab World. It has reported strong growth since 2000, and its economic fortunes depend mostly on oil. (CIA The World Fact book Yemen profile about Yemen, 2005: Countries, L. D, 2009) Since the unification of the Republic of Yemen in 1990, the president was determined to establish a new way of governance. The government represented by the president initiated a plan to develop the new country infrastructure and build a democratic administrative system, which is responsible for the provision of public services to all Yemenis whether in the country or abroad. Since 1990, the Republic of Yemen has been trying to pursue a clear social strategy for developing new sources of income for its people, find new ways of investment in the country, reform the government, and establish new private sector participation to enhance the economical growth of the country (Ministry of Development, Republic of Yemen, 2000). The main objective of the government now and then was to improve the efficiency of the governmental administrative capabilities for better and improved services. The Republic of Yemen long-terms strategy aimed to develop a reliable and efficient administration and government by improving and reforming its ministries and institutions to deliver better public services for all its citizens and gain recognition around the world. However, not all the goals were aimed at improving the governmental functions were achieved. There are still problems facing the government plan to reform like, inflated bureaucracy, lack of collaboration between ministries and agencies, illiteracy, and a lack of direct vision of the future of the country. In its attempt to overcome these problems, the government of the Republic of Yemen has launched a reform project using information technology to implement e-government in the next couple of Years. The implementation of information technology will lead into collaboration between governmental agencies and lead to integrated databases that can be accessed by any agency any time thus delivering rapid and efficient service to the public. Communication and Information Technology in the Republic of Yemen Comparing to other countries around the world, The Republic of Yemen is still lagging in term of using information technology. Tables 1 and 2 compare the Republic of Yemen to other countries around the world and show that the Republic of Yemen is still one of the lowest countries in term of using computers and Internet, telephone usage, and e government readiness. This study was prepared by the National Information Center of the Republic of Yemen, which was submitted to the Republic of Yemens Presidential Office and to the Shura Council on June 2005 as part of a workshop title E-government between reality and expected goals in the Republic of Yemen (Alsohybe, 2007). Table l : Computers for Every 100 People and Internet Usage per 100 People for the World and for Some Countries Including the Republic of Yemen Country/Group PC Percentage (%) per 100 people Internet usage per 100 people The World 7.74 15.47 Arab World 2.04 5.57 U.S.A 65.89 55.14 Canada 48.7 51.28 Malaysia 14.68 31.97 Egypt 1.66 2.82 Yemen 0.79 0.51 Note: E-Government between Reality and Expected Goals in the Republic of Yemen, by (Yemen, National Information Center, 2005. Sanaa, Yemen, p.10). Table 2: E-government Readiness for Some Countries Including the Republic of Yemen Country Web Measurement Communications Human Resources General Indicator international U.S.A 1.00 .0770 .0970 .0913 1 Canada 0.873 0.668 0.970 0.837 7 Malaysia 0.490 0.302 0.830 0.541 42 Egypt 0.100 0_066 0.630 0.265 136 Yemen 0.054 0.040 0.490 0.195 154 Note: E-Government between Reality and Expected Goals in the Republic of Yemen, by (Yemen National Information Center, 2005, Sanaa, Yemen, p. Background of the Problem In the increasingly global today, information technology (IT) spread unpredictably that because IT considers substantial investment for organizations in all different aspects. Technology used to support the strategy and operational goals Countries and governments all over the world try to develop and extend their business and economies throughout built relation and agreements among them for the exchange and transaction for different trade aspects through out what call e=government to facilitate communicating and transmitting the information between these countries, and to achieve these, there is need to adopt the information technology as infrastructure for E-government purposes. (Traunmuller and Klaus Lenk, 2002) But unfortunately acquiring appropriate IT is not a sufficient condition for utilizing it effectively. Information technology importance for adopt E-government and in order to avoid the failure in adopting E-government. Also because the change in the environment and technology the companies trying to keep going with these changes. The companies spend a lot in investing in the technology in order to empower its internal, external performance and the productivity (Alsohybe, 2007). Some employees in the organizations not used the IT effectively or are not used, despite the extending in the investment in IT. This led the organization to inappropriate investment and west the opportunities even remain the company undeveloped. So the workers in IS and the management under pressure to locate the financial and organizational benefits from the IT investment. In order to help managers and IS practitioners to determine the factors or the motivators for IT usage and the acceptance of individuals for IT usage in order to reduce the cost and attain the maximum return of the investment in IT from the beginning (Lopez Manson, 1997; Dadayan Ferro, 2005). Problem statement The problem statements is that it is expected that all companies adopting, using effectively and having information technology, however, in the reality, not all the companies adopt, use effectively or use the information technology. However, in the reality, not all employees in those organizations accept, adopt, use effectively or use the information technology. That means there is a gap between the ideal or the maximum usage for the information technology among the Yemeni government employees and the reality or the actual usage for the information technology inside those organizations. This leads to investigate or examine the determinants and characteristics such as (individual characteristics, system characteristics, social characteristics, institutional characteristics) which are of effecting in using or adopting such technology. Many researchers in information technology IT and information system IS support the necessity for study the factors affecting the IT acceptance and its relation with the employees performance: The study was conducted by (Venkatesh Morris Davis Davis, 2003) to compare eight models and validate the new theory named the unified model The study recommended that: Future research should identify the underlying influential mechanisms potential candidates here include computer literacy and social or cultural background, among others. Even The role of social influence and its change over time and may help explain some of the equivocal results helping to clarify the contingent nature of social influences. Current theoretical perspectives on individual acceptance are notably weak in providing prescriptive guidance to designers. For example applying any of the models might inform a designer that some set of individuals might find a new system difficult to use. Even the study recommended future study include system characteristics and self-efficacy And task technology fit. The study said that further work should attempt to identify and test additional boundary conditions of the model UTAUT in an attempt to provide an even richer understanding of technology adoption and usage behavior. Even different user groups, individuals in different functional areas and other organizational contexts (public or government institutions) Another study was conducted in SAUDIA ARABI (AL Gahtani, 2004) to examine the technology acceptance theory in their culture recommended more studies in the technology acceptance with focusing in the social and culture factors and using different methodologies. Also the study which conducted by (Gorke, 2006) mention about the important of farther research for determining the factors influence the decision of using particular system and the acceptance for any new system. Even the study (Yalcinkaya B.A M.S, 2007) which conducted in TURKISH in police office recommended for more studies considering other possible psychosocial or contextual variables that may affect behavioral intention of information technology usage. Beside The study (Almutairi, 2007) which conducted in Kuwaiti ministries to examine the technology acceptance theory in their culture found that there is needed to test the TAM in other culture to insure is it globalization of the model and the possibility to use in different cultures. More over The study was conducted in china (Kim lee law, 2007) This study makes an attempt to investigate the relationship between antecedents including information system quality, perceived value, and users acceptance of hotel front office systems (HFOSs) and the Results show information system quality affects users beliefs in HFOSs, it is important to realize that other factors may also play an important role in user beliefs. These factors include computer use experience and the study suggested Different studies can be performed on IT, targeting other technology systems .it is important to find factors other than perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and perceived value that can affect the attitude towards technology acceptance. A few areas can be further examined in future studies in hotels as well as in other organizations. Even the study was conducted by (Smith, 2008) recommended more study for the technology acceptance within the private and the public sectors. According to (Agarwal, 2000) the importance of individual differences as a significant theoretical construct in technology acceptance is indisputable. Also, he recommends for farther studies in the training as individual difference variables. Even, the study supports that technology acceptance can be facilitated by utilizing other interventions that directly affect beliefs such as training and developing a learning culture. Also, in YEMEN the usage of the information is 10% from the system capability and that was not expected. So, there is need for investigate the reasons which inhibited the organization from getting the ideal usage from the system (wards from the minister of information technology and the vice general manager of the PTC public telecommunication corporation in Yemen KAKAL AL JABRI KAMAL HASAN, 2007). Therefore, there is a concurrent need to develop and gain empirical support for models of technology acceptance within the public sector, and to examine technology acceptance and utilization issues among public employees to improve the success of IS implementation in this arena and to explore the government role to support the adoption for information technology within the public utilities employees even as strategy or as logistic support. Even examine the role of the information technology strategy in controlling the factors influence the acceptance for technology to develop and improve the employees performance. This paper presents more comprehensive, by using model of technology acceptance and suggest testing it in public sector (Alsohybe, 2007). Research Objectives 1. To examine the status of technology acceptance and utilization issues among public employees to improve the success of IS acceptance and implementation in the following theory: To examine individual differences which are effecting on the acceptance for any new technology among the employees in the public sector. To examine which of system feature that influences in acceptance the technology To examine the social factors that influences the acceptance for any new technology among the employees in the public sector. To examine institutional factors which are influencing the acceptance for any new technology among the employees in the public sector. 2 To evaluate the role of strategy in affecting on the factors that influence the acceptance for any new technology. Research questions To examine the status of technology acceptance and utilization issues among public employees to improve the success of IS acceptance and implementation in the following theory: Is there effect for individual differences on the acceptance for any new technology among the employees in the public sector? Are there effects for the system feature on the acceptance for any new technology? What are the influences of the social factors on the acceptance for any new technology among the employees in the public sector? Is there effect for the institutional factors on the acceptance for any new technology among the employees in the public sector? What is the role of strategy in affecting the factors that influence the acceptance for any new technology? Purpose of the study The study plans to examine the status of technology acceptance and utilization issues among managers and employees in the public sector as individuals to~ improve the success of IS acceptance and implementation in this area. This study aims to explore the government role to support the adoption for information technology within the employees in the public sector. Even, the study will evaluate the strategy role in controlling the variables that influences the acceptance for the information technology, and explore the information technology company characteristics that have been used in public companies in Yemen. The government of the Republic of Yemen has an opportunity to improve the progresses and prepares its people to meet the challenges of accepting and implementing information technology in the work place to provide information and services for its citizens from any place at any time. By using IT, government of the Republic of Yemen will be able to overcome the communication problem, improve government efficiency, develop alternative sources of income, and improve the livelihood of all its citizens. The Yemeni government is committed to improve the way it is conducting its day-to-day work by adopting an information technology. Scope of study The study will conduct in the public sector in the republic of Yemen. The study target will be the managers and employees as individuals in the ministries and some utilities belong to the government. This will be achieved by survey Significance of the Study According to the study (Smith, 2008) which aimed to delineate IT differences between the public and private sectors. The study argued that private sector using the information technology more than the public sector that due to many reasons individual differences is one of these reasons, so this study was encouraged to study the acceptance and implementation of the information technology among the individuals in the public sector. Even, this study is trying to add the culture as independent variable for the technology acceptance model TAM, TAM2 and TAM3 as empirical study and contribution, this research will examine the acceptance and implementation of technologies in a very conservative and traditional society like The Republic of Yemen society where culture and religion dominate the way people live and perceive changes around them and can affect their acceptance or resentment of such innovation. Also, the study combined TAM, TAM2 by setting the attitude as mediated in the relation between the believes perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and the intention to use which was deleted in the technology acceptance model TAM2 and TAM3. Also, many studies were conducted to examine three variables affecting the technology acceptance such as individual differences, system feature and social influence and some studies examine individual differences, system feature and institutional factors, however, this study aims to examine the four factors because of the effect of each variable in the acceptance of the technology and its effect on the other variables. Also, this study uses mixed theories to give more explanatory power for the technology acceptance. Also, this study aims to predicting the behavior of the managers and employees for accept the information technology is critical issue for the companies because the important of the information technology in the government utilities in order to enhance its internal and external performance in facilitating the work flaw and smooth transferring of the information among the individuals in the different department in one unit even between the units in the public sector. Chapter 2 Summary for chapter 1 From-the -previous chapter which presents the problem statement, accept, adopting, using effectively and using information technology, however, in the reality, not all employees in those organizations accept, adopting, using, effectively and using the information technology, his means there is a gap between the ideal usage for the information technology among the employees of the Yemeni government and the reality of the usage for the technology inside those organizations. This leads to investigate and examine the determinants and characteristics (individual differences, system characteristic, social characteristics, institutional characteristic) which are effecting in accepting, adopting for such technology. 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1- The importance of Information Technology Rapidly advanced scientific and technological innovations, economic turbulence and uncertainty are some factors that underlie the importance of information technology investment. IT enables organizations to have the capabilities to do some adaptations proactively, so IT becomes an integral part, even a pivotal part of business activities and processes undertaken by any organization (Chau Hu, 2002), from that, question appears about the necessity to invest in IT in order to the organizations can get the benefits from adopting the information technology and to insure the success in the adoption, Agarwal and Karahanna (2000) see the success in this investment will be a valuable when IT utilized by the intended user in the way that contributes to the strategy and the operational goals of the organization, so the user acceptance of IT is the fundamental for the success of IT investment. The importance of technology comes from that Technology has an important impact on innovation and the development of societies and economies. This impact can be observed in three steps, the first step is substitution, new technology substitutes for the old. For example, consumers start substituting their fixed telephone lines with mobile telephones. The second step is the diffusion, when adopting the new technology is widely across society because it is law cost or better or more effective than the previous technology. The final step is transformation when the new technology ways start working and emerging because the new technology is diffused so widely in society. For example, the widespread adoption of the networking has led to interesting innovations in the communication patterns of individuals such as executives conducting business while waiting in airport lounges or traveling in trains DUTTA MIA, 2006)World Economic Forum. ICT offers more opportunities for economic development and plays very important role in international competitiveness, rapid economic change, and productive capacity of improvements for developing countries. ICTs offer the developing countries many opportunities, as it has done in the developed world, when it created unprecedented possibilities for them. Studies have emphasized that there is evidence of a strong linkage between GDP growth and ICT investment showing the importance of ICT investment for development. Acquiring IT to support business needs is clearly a crucial prerequisite to exploiting the potential of IT. Unfortunately acquiring appropriate IT is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for utilizing it effectively. Organizations (i.e., leaders and managers) make primary adoption decisions, yet it is individuals within the firm who are the ultimate users and consumers of IT. Thus, it is evident that true business value from any information technology would derive only through appropriate use by its target user group. In other words, systems that are not utilized will not deliver the returns anticipated by managers. Evidence suggests that individual users can exhibit a variety of different behaviors when confronted with a new information technology: They may completely reject it and engage in sabotage or active resistance they may only partially utilize its functionality, or they may wholeheartedly embrace the technology and the opportunities it offers. Obviously, each behavior has some consequential outcomes both negative and positive for managers (Agarwal, 2000). Also, Organizations have increased their investment in information technology IT for planning in order to increase the efficiency of their business processes. Support management decision making and improve productivity. So IT become important tool to attaining competitive advantage for the organization and improves employees productivity and efficiency (Kim Lee Law, 2007), besides, -Many researches investigate the relation between IT investment and increase the productivity and the performance in the companies one of studies (sircar et al, 2000) which found several organization success with the spending on the IT but others were failed. (Agarwal karahanna, 2000) argue in this result that IT investment will be successful when IT utilized by the organization intended user in the way contribute to the strategy and the goals of the firms. Thus user acceptance is the key for the successes of the IT investment (Darsono, 2005), Even, for more than two decades information technology has be en the focus for researcher in information system this is because IT considers as the key to lead the organization for the good performance so many researches focus in the initial usage for IT or continuous usage for IT. 2.2- The advantages and disadvantages from adopting informationtechnology 2.2.1 The advantages Information technology uses to support the competitive strategy in helping the companies to reduce the costs of the company to give special offer for its products and services and give better care about customers and suppliers and to develop unions among the company and the company with the environment around the company and increase the virtue of its investment in IT resources. By using the information technology the organization or the companies will be able to develop the value of its business throughout making the customer value the focus of its strategy which is to keep track of its customers preferences to supply its products and services anytime anywhere by using the internet or intranet and extranet(e-commerce websites). A lot of organizations/companies use information technology and internet to reengineering its business process because information technology can make integration for the organization to work for the same goal of the organization and this improves the design of the work flows or the requirements of the job even the organization structures even improve the efficiency and the effectiveness. Information technology provides the communicatio

Egoism in Crime and Punishment :: Crime Punishment Essays

Egoism in Crime and Punishment An egocentric attitude can be seen in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment. Dostoyevsky's young Raskolnikov is staggeringly arrogant. Raskolnikov commits a murder and a failed robbery in the story. His journey in overcoming his ego can be seen through his initial crime, denial of failure, and acceptance of mistakes. Raskolnikov commits his initial crime out of arrogance. "The old hag is nothing.... I killed not a human being," he says. (245) Raskolnikov feels that he has justification for killing the pawn broker. He thinks that the woman has no reason to live. He believes that the woman is less than a human, and that he is a superior being. Raskolnikov thinks that he has a right to kill. After the botched crime Raskolnikov is plagued his failures. "He was conscious at the time that he had forgotten something that he ought not forget, and he tortured himself." (107) After he carelessly kills both women, and allows for the evidence to be found, Raskolnikov realizes he did not commit the perfect crime. This devastates his ego, so he tries to cling to his previous self perception. He is also plagued with feelings of guilt. His guilt, combined with the mistakes he made during the crime, shatter his self perception of perfection. When Raskolnikov surrenders he accepts his mistakes and rejects his self-centered attitude. "It was I who killed the old woman and her sister, Lizaveta, with an axe, and robbed them," Raskolnikov confesses. (476) With his surrender he not only accepts his methodical mistakes in the execution of the crime, but he sees something beyond himself. He begins to see the magnitude and horror of his act. He had taken a life. By realizing the immorality of his crime and rejecting his self glorifying mind set, Raskolnikov accepts his own humanity. In Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov's initial crime, failure, and acceptance of mistakes are his road to overcoming his ego, as well as self discovery.

Landscape Architecture

BUILD ENVIRONMENT The term built environment refers to the human-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging in scale from buildings and parks or green space to neighborhoods and cities that can often include their supporting infrastructure, such as water supply, or energy networks. The built environment is a material, spatial and cultural product of human labor that combines physical elements and energy in forms for living, working and playing. It has been defined as â€Å"the human-made space in which people live, work, and recreate on a day-to-day basis†.The â€Å"built environment encompasses places and spaces created or modified by people including buildings, parks, and transportation systems†. In recent years, public health research has expanded the definition of â€Å"built environment† to include healthy food access, community gardens, â€Å"walkabilty†, and â€Å"bikability†. Early concepts of built environments w ere introduced thousands of years ago. Hippodamus of Miletos, known as the â€Å"father of urban planning†, developed Greek cities from 498 BC to 408 BC that created order by using grid plans that mapped the city.These early city plans eventually gave way to the City Beautiful movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s, inspired by Daniel Hudson Burnham, a reformist for the Progressivism movement who actively promoted â€Å"a reform of the landscape in tandem with political change†. The effort was in partnership with others who believed that beautifying American cities would improve the moral compass of the cities and encourage the upper class to spend their money in cities. This beautification process included parks and architectural design. Modern built environmentCurrently built environments are typically used to describe the interdisciplinary field that addresses the design, construction, management, and use of these man-made surroundings as an interrelated whole a s well as their relationship to human activities over time (rather than a particular element in isolation or at a single moment in time). The field is generally not regarded as a traditional profession or academic discipline in its own right, instead drawing upon areas such as economics, law, public policy, public health, management, geography, design, technology, and environmental sustainability.Within the field of public health, built environments are referred to as building or renovating areas in an effort to improve the community’s well-being through construction of â€Å"aesthetically, health improved, and environmentally improved landscapes and living structures†. Urban planning The term â€Å"urban planning† indicates that much of the environment we inhabit is man-made and that these artificial surroundings are so extensive and cohesive that with regards to the consumption of resources, waste disposal, and productive enterprise, they are similar to organi sms.Public health In public health, built environments refer to physical environments that are designed with health and wellness as integral parts of the communities. Research has indicated that how neighborhoods are created can affect both the physical activity and mental health of the communities’ residents. Studies have shown that built environments that were expressly designed to improve physical activity are linked to higher rates of physical activity, which in turn, positively affects health.Neighborhoods with more walkability had lower rates of obesity as well as increased physical activity among its residents. They also had lower rates of depression, higher social capital, and less alcohol abuse. Walkability features in these neighborhoods include safety, sidewalk construction, as well as destinations in which to walk. In addition, the perception of a walkable neighborhood, one that is perceived to have good sidewalks and connectivity, is correlated with higher rates of physical activity. Assessments of walkability have been completed through the use of GIS programs.One such program, Street Smart Walk Score, is a walkability assessment tool which determines distances to grocery stores and other amenities, as well as connectivity and intersection frequency using specific addresses. Assessments such as Street Smart Walk Score can be utilized by city and county planning departments to improve existing walkability of communities. Public health also addresses additional components of built environments including â€Å"bikeability† and healthy food access such as proximity to grocery stores and community gardens.Bikeability refers to the access that an area has granted to safe biking through multiple bike paths and bike lanes. Both walkability and bikeability have been cited as determinants of physical activity. Access to healthy food is also an important component to the built environment. A higher density of convenience stores has been associ ated with obesity in children. In contrast, improved access to community supermarkets and farmer’s markets is correlated with lower overweight status. Specifically in low income neighborhoods, the presence of a local grocery store is correlated with lower BMI/overweight risk.Community gardens are also considered a part of the built environment, and have been shown to increase fruit and vegetable intake among gardeners. Scholars say that community gardens have also been shown to have positive social and psychological impacts that lead to lower levels of stress, hypertension, and an improved sense of wellness, affecting the overall health of the individual and the community. The intersection of public health with other disciplines is evident in the design process of built environments which includes environmental planning, policy development and land-use planning.Research suggests that people are more active in mixed-use communities or those that incorporate retail and resident ial and densely populated areas as well as those with good street connectivity. Those who preferred to walk and live in walkable environments often have lower obesity rates and drive less over those who preferred living in auto-dependent environments. The strength of the evidence for reducing obesity through environment has been highlighted by the Center for Disease Control in its Common Community Measures for Obesity Prevention Project, which includes measures of healthy food access and physical activity environments.Landscape architecture In landscape architecture, the built environment is understood to mean a human-made landscape, as distinguished from the natural environment; for example, a city park is a built environment. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally[->0] on Earth[->1] or some region thereof. It is an environment that encompasses the interaction of all living species. The concept of the natural env ironment can be distinguished by components: Complete ecological[->2] units that function as natural[->3] systems without massive human[->4] intervention, including all vegetation[->5], microorganisms[->6], soil[->7], rocks[->8], atmosphere[->9], and natural phenomena[->10] that occur within their boundaries.  §Universal natural resources[->11] and physical phenomena[->12] that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air[->13], water[->14], and climate[->15], as well as energy[->16], radiation[->17], electric charge[->18], and magnetism[->19], not originating from human activity.The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment[->20], which comprises the areas and components that are strongly influenced by humans. A geographical area is regarded as a natural environment. It is difficult to find absolutely natural environments, and it is common that the naturalness varies in a continuum, from ideally 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other. More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform.If, for instance, we take an agricultural field, and consider the mineralogic composition[->21] and the structure[->22] of its soil, we will find that whereas the first is quite similar to that of an undisturbed forest soil, the structure is quite different. Natural environment is often used as a synonym for habitat[->23]. For instance, when we say that the natural environment of giraffes is the savanna[->24]. PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS The â€Å"Typical† Plant Body The Root System (Usually underground)  §Anchor the plant in the soil  §Absorb water and nutrients  §Conduct water and nutrients Food Storage The Shoot System (Usually above grounds)  §Elevates the plant above the soil  §Many functions including:  §photosynthesis  §reproduction & dispersal  §food and water conduction TYPE OF PLANTS Cacti (Cactus) Cactus plants are well ad apted to hot and dry weather by storing water in their succulent stems. They are also known for their spines, for which they are famous. Flowers Flowers are the reproductive part of angiosperms, also known as flowering plants. Herbs Herbs are used for culinary, medicinal and spiritual uses. In cuisine, the leaves of the herb are normally the only part used.All parts of herbs are used in various medical or spiritual practices. Shrubs and Bushes Usually under 6 m tall, shrubs and bushes are categorized as woody plants. Shrubs have multiple stems and many are covered with flowers of all shapes and sizes. Trees Trees are everywhere in the world. Trees are tall, large and some are very old. Trees are important in fighting soil erosion and responsible for the clean oxygen we breathe. Vegetables The term ‘vegetable' is not actually a scientific classification of a plant, but rather strictly a culinary term.Vegetables are parts of plants (flower buds, seeds, stems, fruits, etc) that a re edible and used in culinary dishes. PLANT Plants, also called green plants (Viridiplantae in Latin), are living organisms of the kingdom Plantae including such multicellular groups as flowering plants, conifers, ferns and mosses, as well as, depending on definition, the green algae, but not red or brown seaweeds like kelp, nor fungi or bacteria. Green plants have cell walls with cellulose and characteristically obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis using chlorophyll contained in chloroplasts, which gives them their green color.Some plants are parasitic and may not produce normal amounts of chlorophyll or photosynthesize. Plants are also characterized by sexual reproduction, modular and indeterminate growth, and an alteration of generations, although asexual reproduction is common, and some plants bloom only once while others bear only one bloom. Precise numbers are difficult to determine, but as of 2010, there are thought to be 300–315 thousand speci es of plants, of which the great majority, some 260–290 thousand, are seed plants.Green plants provide most of the world's free oxygen and are the basis of most of the earth's ecologies, especially on land. Plants described as grains, fruits and vegetables form mankind's basic foodstuffs, and have been domesticated for millennia. Plants enrich our lives as flowers and ornaments. Until recently and in great variety they have served as the source of most of our medicines and drugs. Their scientific study is known as botany. [-;0] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Nature [-;1] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Earth [-;2] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ecological -;3] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Nature [-;4] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Human [-;5] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Vegetation [-;6] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Microorganisms [-;7] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Soil [-;8] – http://en. w ikipedia. org/wiki/Rock_(geology) [-;9] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Atmosphere [-;10] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Natural_phenomenon [-;11] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Natural_resource [-;12] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Physical_phenomena [-;13] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air -;14] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Water [-;15] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Climate [-;16] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Energy [-;17] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Radiation [-;18] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Electric_charge [-;19] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Magnetism [-;20] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Built_environment [-;21] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Mineralogy [-;22] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Soil_structure [-;23] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Habitat [-;24] – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Savanna

Nursing Refugee Women - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3244 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Medicine Essay Type Essay any type Tags: Refugee Essay Did you like this example? Australia has a large and expanding population of people from a refugee background à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" referred to as refugees. Refugees in general, and refugee women in particular, have distinctive and diverse health needs which require complex and conscientious responses from nurses and health systems. In the context of nursing refugee women in Australia, this paper will explore the need for cultural safety in nursing. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Nursing Refugee Women" essay for you Create order It will then analyse the negative impacts of culturally unsafe nursing practices and health systems in Australia on refugees and refugee women. Finally, it will discuss how culturally safe nursing practice can (and should) be achieved in Australia to improve the health outcomes of refugee women and others of diverse backgrounds. The Nursing Council of New Zealand (2002: p. 7), which developed the concept of cultural safety, defines it as the effective nursing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [care] of a person or family from another culture, [as] determined by that person or family. Fundamentally, culturally safe nursing practice focuses on supporting diverse people to effectively access and engage with mainstream biomedical health systems, and so reducing the high rates of poor physical and psychological mental health outcomes in these populations (Johnstone Kanitsaki, 2007). Culturally safe nursing practice achieves this by attempting to deconstruct the inequitable power relationships between p atients and health providers and systems, which are a significant barrier to health access and engagement for socio-culturally vulnerably groups (Anderson et al., 2003; Woods, 2010). This is achieved through a focus on culture. However, culturally safe practice does not involve nurses learning others cultures; indeed, diversity both between and among cultures is too significant to allow a nurse to do this meaningfully (Woods, 2010). Instead, culturally safe nursing involves a nurse reflecting on their own culture and on the legitimacy of others cultures in the context of the nursing care they provide (Mortensen, 2010). Belfrage (2007) notes that cultural safety underpins the provision of the most effective health practice and systems for diverse groups in Australia. This is particularly true in the context of refugee health. The United Nations 1951 Refugee Convention, Article 1(A)2, defines a refugee as any person residing outside their country of nationality or residence due to fear of persecution (UNHCR, 2015). As a signatory to this Convention Australia has an obligation to assist with the resettlement of refugees, including a special category of refugees referred to women at risk (Australian Law Reform Commission, 2015; Parliament of Australia, 2015b). In 2013-14, Australia resettled a total of 6500 refugees, approximately 3.2% of its total migrant intake (Parliament of Australia, 2015b). The majority of these refugees were from Afghanistan (39%), with significant numbers also from Myanmar (18%) and Iraq (13%) (Parliament of Australia, 2015b). In response to the Syrian refugee crisis, in 2015-16 Australia will significantly increase its intake of refugees within existing humanitarian quotas (Parliament of Australia, 2015a). Under the Migration Regulation 1994 Australia allocates 12% of its humanitarian quota to women at risk, and in 2013-14 granted over 1000 visas to women at risk (Parliament of Australia, 2015b). This program highlights the fact that r efugee women are particularly vulnerable to the effects of conflict and persecution (Federal Minister for Women, 2014). Refugees in general, and refugee women in particular, have unique and diverse health profiles (Hadgkiss Renzaho, 2014: p. 157). Though refugees make up a very small part of the overall Australian population, it is essential that nurses are aware of refugees health needs and their complex sociocultural determinants if culturally safe health care is to be provided. In a seminal work on refugee health in Australia (examining the health of refugee children specifically), Davidson et al. (2004) report that a significant number of refugees arrive in Australia with complex health needs. The psychological issues experienced by refugees are well-recognised. Exposure to trauma leaves many refugees à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" up to 60% in one Australian study à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" with complex psychological sequelae, including impairments to memory function and debilitating dissociat ive reactions (Alvin Tay et al., 2013). Nickerson et al. (2014) reports that up to 25% of refugees receive a psychological diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and 16% of these people also have disorders related to grief. Costa (2007) highlights that refugee women in particular face an increased risk of psychological morbidity related to trauma underpinned by conflict, persecution and forced resettlement. For example, one study found that the gender discrimination experienced by a large number of refugee women is positively correlated with increased incidence of traumatic disorders (including PTSD) and increased risk of suicidality (Kira et al., 2010). It is important to note that issues related to gender, including roles and access, may also limit a refugee womans health-seeking behaviours related to mental illness (OMahony Donnelly, 2013). In addition to mental illness, a large number of refugees à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" up to 77% in some reports à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" al so experience physical illness; indeed, Hadgkiss and Renzaho (2014) note that poor mental health is strongly correlated with poor physical health in refugee populations. Physical illnesses which are particularly prevalent in refugee populations include dental disease, non-specific migraine, musculoskeletal pain and disorders of the integumentary, respiratory and gastrointestinal systems (Hadgkiss Renzaho, 2014). There is also a high prevalence of infectious disease in refugee populations, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), active tuberculosis, Hepatitis B and C and chronic gastrointestinal infections (Hadgkiss Renzaho, 2014). Costa (2007) notes that refugee women are disproportionately affected by nutritional deficiencies and anaemia, and a sequelae of physical and psychological issues related to gender-based violence. Refugee women experience higher rates of complex gynaecological and obstetric conditions, are more likely to have been sexually assaulted and are more li kely to have had an unwanted pregnancy and / or abortion than other women in host countries (Goosen et al., 2009; Kurth et al., 2010). The myriad of complex health issues faced by refugees highlights the importance of host countries health systems being responsive to refugees health needs through the provision of culturally safe care and services. However, there is evidence to suggest this is not being achieved in the Australian context; indeed, Johnstone and Kanitsaki (2007) conclude that cultural safety is both poorly understood and lacks currency in Australias mainstream health contexts (Johnstone Kanitsaki, 2007). This leads to culturally unsafe nursing practices. The Nursing Council of New Zealand (2002: p. 7) define this as compris[ing] any action which diminishes, demeans or disempowers the cultural identity and wellbeing of an individual, either overtly and intentionally or otherwise. There are many examples of culturally unsafe practice relating to refugees in the Au stralian context. For example, many refugees, both in Australia and elsewhere, perceive themselves to be discriminated against by health staff in their host countries à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" a key aspect of culturally unsafe practice. Multiple studies report on such issues à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" including refugees perceptions of denial or provision of poorer-quality care on the basis of race and / or immigration status (Bhatia Wallace, 2007; ODonnell et al., 2007; ODonnell et al., 2008; Wahoush, 2009; Bernardes et al., 2010; Kokanovich Stone, 2010; Asgary Segar, 2011). This is particularly problematic in terms of the provision of mental health services for refugees in Australia; indeed, Newman et al. (2008) highlight that Australian health workers frequently devalue and deligitimise refugees experiences of mental illness à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" for example, by dismissing the self-harm behaviours of refugees in immigration detention as being politically-motivated. Hadgkiss and Renzaho (2014) re port a high level of medical mistrust among refugee populations, underpinned by issues such as a fear of financial exploitation and that health information will be used to inform decisions about asylum status (Kokanovic Stone, 2010; Asgary Segar, 2011). Covert institutional racism is recognised to be a significant problem in Australian health settings, and this is underpinned by the prejudicial and discriminative attitudes towards refugees which are pervasive in wider Australian society (Henry et al., 2004; Davidson et al., 2008; Johnstone Kanitsaki, 2008). This systemic trauma compounds the health issues of refugees settled in Australia, and is a particular problem for women. Indeed, one Australian study found that women with vulnerabilities related to social adversity were substantially more likely to experience inequalities in health access (in this study, in the context of perinatal care specifically) (Yelland et al., 2012). In addition to culturally unsafe nursing practic es, the provision of culturally unsafe health services is a particular problem for refugees in Australia. As noted by Renzaho et al. (2013) the health systems in host countries are often poorly-equipped to manage the complex health, linguistic and cultural needs of refugee populations (Renzaho et al., 2013). It is well-recognised that Australias mainstream biomedical health system is highly Eurocentric, disempowering because of its exclusivity and repressive of the fundamental social dimensions of health (Willis Elmer, 2007). Additionally, the biomedical model of health may be incompatible with refugees diverse perceptions of health, focusing instead on a limited pathological definition of disease and a reductionist distinction between physical and mental health (Willis Elmer 2007). Again, this is particularly problematic in terms of the provision of refugee mental health services; for example, Savy Sawyer (2008) present evidence for the considerably limited culturally safe treat ment options in Australia for refugees suffering acute mental illness. These issues may result in refugees exclusion from or disengagement with health services (Correa-Velez et al., 2013). Indeed, there is evidence to suggest that refugees engagement with health services is poor; in a European study, Bischoff et al. (2009) found that refugees attend far fewer than the average number of consultations, and that their cost to the health system of their host country was just half that of others in host countries. There is minimal current data available on the engagement of refugee women specifically with health services; however, one study suggests that refugee women are 40% less likely than other women in host countries to attend health screening (in this case for Papanicolaou testing, a common screen for cervical cancer) (Rogstad Dale, 2004). Refugees exclusion from and disengagement with health services feeds into the cycle of poor physical and mental health outcomes in this populat ion. Woods (2010) notes that nurses have a critical role to play in deconstructing the power imbalances which exist between patients and health providers, and which often result in the provision of culturally unsafe care à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" thereby promoting refugees access to and engagement with health services in a culturally safe way. The Nursing Council of New Zealand (2002: p. 7) highlights that culturally safe nursing practice is underpinned by nurses hav[ing] undertaken a process of reflection on [their] cultural identity and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ recognis[ing] the impact that [their] personal culture has on [their] professional practice. Here, the notion of culture extends beyond the traditional definition of the term as a system of worldviews, value systems and lifestyles based on shared race or ethnicity, and instead culture is considered as a complex, changing concept underpinned by factors such as individual experiences, gender and social position, etc. (Woods, 2010). It is important to note that achieving culturally safe nursing is an ongoing process of continuous reflection (Ogunsiji et al. 2007). Given the covert but pervasive negative views of refugees in Australian health systems and wider society (Henry et al., 2004; Davidson et al., 2008; Johnstone Kanitsaki, 2008), reflecting on ones own culture in this way is a particularly important aspect of providing culturally safe health care to refugees. In addition to reflecting on their own culture, a nurse must also reflect on the cultures of others à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" but should do so in the context of cultural relativism. Cultural relativism is a sociological theory which posits that all cultures are, and therefore must be recognised as, equally valid and legitimate forms of human expression (Kottak, 2004). Cultural relativism is particularly important when caring for refugees, including refugee women, who engage in unfamiliar and challenging health practices, one example of which is ritualised g enital cutting (also referred to as female genital mutilation). Many refugee women from parts of Africa and the Middle East perceive genital cutting to be an important cultural practice and fundamental to their identity, role and beliefs, however the mainstream biomedical health system in Australia denounces and reproves the practice (Ogunsiji et al. 2007). If such issues are not dealt with sensitively and approaches à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" from both nurses and the health system à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" balanced through the application of principles of cultural relativism, refugee women may disengage from health services (Ogunsiji et al. 2007). As noted, disengagement drives the cycle of poor physical and mental health outcomes for refugees in Australia. Australia has a large refugee population which is predicted to increase significantly in the coming years. Refugees in general, and refugee women in particular, have distinctive and diverse health needs which require complex and conscientio us responses from nurses and health systems. In the context of nursing refugee women in Australia, this paper has explored the need for cultural safety in nursing. It has also analysed the negative impacts of culturally unsafe nursing practices and health systems in Australia on refugees, with a focus on refugee women. Finally, it was discussed how culturally safe nursing practice can (and should) be achieved in Australia to improve the health outcomes of refugee women and others of diverse backgrounds. References Alvin Tay, K, Frommer, N, Hunter, J, Silove, D, Pearson, L, Roque, MS et al. 2013, A mixed-method study of expert psychological evidence submitted for a cohort of asylum seekers undergoing refugee determination status in Australia, Social Science Medicine, vol. 98, no. 1, pp. 106-115. Anderson, J, Perry, J, Blue, G, Browne, A, Henderson, A, Khan, KB et al. 2003, Rewriting cultural safety within the postcolonial and postnational feminist project: Toward new epistemologies of healing, Advances in Nursing Science, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 196-214. Asgary, R Segar, N 2011, Barriers to health care access among refugee asylum seekers, Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 506-522. Australian Law Reform Commission 2015, Refugee law: Refugee law in Australia, viewed 30 September, https://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/22-refugee-law/refugee-law-australia-0 Belfrage, M 2007, Why culturally safe health care?, Medical Journal of Australia, vol. 186, n o. 10, pp. 537-538. Bernardes, D, Wright, J, Edwards, C, Tomkins, H Difoz, D 2010, Asylum seekers perspectives on their mental health and views on health and social services: Contributions for service provision using a mixed-methods approach, International Journal of Migrant Health Social Care, vol. 6, no 4, pp. 3-19. Bhatia, R Wallace, P 2007, Experiences of refugees and asylum seekers in general practice: A qualitative study, BMC Family Practice, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 48-58. Bischoff, A, Denhaerynck, K, Schneider, M, Battegay, E Sendi, P 2009, Do asylum seekers consume more health care resources? Some evidence from Switzerland. Pharmacoeconomics Health Economics Journal, vol. 1, no, 1, pp. 3-8. Correa-Velez, I, Spaaij, R Upham, S 2013, We are not here to claim better services than any other: Social exclusion among men from refugee backgrounds in urban and regional Australia, Journal of Refugee Studies, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 163-170. Costa, D 2007, Health care of re fugee women, Australian Family Physician, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 151-154. Davidson, N, Skull, S, Chaney, G, Frydenberg, A, Jones, C, Isaacs et al. 2004, Comprehensive health assessment for newly arrived refugee children in Australia, Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, vol. 40, no. 9-10, pp. 562-568. Davidson, G, Murray, K Schweitzer, R 2008, Review of refugee mental health and wellbeing: Australian perspectives, Australian Psychologist, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 160-174. Federal Minister for Women 2014, SSI women at risk forum, retrieved 30 September 2015, https://minister.women.gov.au/media/2014-07-11/ssi-women-risk-forum Goosen, S, Uitenbroek, D, Wijsen, C Stronks, K 2009, Induced abortions and teenage births among asylum seekers in The Netherlands: Analysis of national surveillance data, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, vol. 63, no. 7, pp. 528-533. 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Newman, LK, Dudley, M Steel, Z 2008, Asylum, detention and mental health in Australia, Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 110-127. Nickerson, A, Liddell, BJ, McCallum, F, Steel, Z, Silove, D Bryant, R 2014, Posttraumatic stress disorder and prolonged grief in refugees exposed to trauma and loss, BMC Psychi atry, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 106-126. Nursing Council of New Zealand 2002, Guidelines for cultural safety, the treaty of Waitangi, and Maori health in nursing and midwifery education and practice, viewed 30 September 2015, https://www.nursingcouncil.org.nz/Publications/Standards-and-guidelines-for-nurses ODonnell, CA, Higgins, M, Chauhan, R Mullen, K 2007, They think were OK and we know were not: A qualitative study of asylum seekers access, knowledge and views to health care in the UK, BMC Health Services Research, no. 7, vol. 1, pp. 75-94. 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Savy, P Sawyer, A 2009, Risk, suffering and competing narratives in the psychiatric assessment of an Iraqi refugee, Culture, Medicine Psychiatry, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 84-101. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 2015, The 1951 Refugee Convention, viewed 30 September, https://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html Wahoush, EO 2009, Equitable health care access: The experience of refugee and refugee claimant mothers with an ill preschooler, Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 186-206. Willis, K Elmer, S 2007, Society, culture and health: An introduction to sociology for nurses, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Woods, M 2010, Cultural safety and the socioethical nurse, Nursing Ethics, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 715-725. Yelland, JS, Sutherland, GA Brown, SJ 2012, Womens experience of discrimination in Australian perinata l care: The double disadvantage of social adversity and unequal care, Birth: Issues in Perinatal Care, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 211-220.